History - War at a Glance

Fierce Encounters: Combat in Italy The fighting in Italy plays an important strategic role in the European Theater. It holds down a large number of German forces, forces that cannot be shifted to France or the Soviet Union. There are tactical lessons as well. The Allies learn more about amphibious landings. They learn more about German tactics: the use of strongpoints, infiltration and counterattack, and, in the face of a superior force, the fighting withdrawal. They also learn that, even in the most dire circumstances, the Germans never break and run. With Kesselring’s 10th Army strongly entrenched behind the Gustav Line, the Allies face the prospect of attacking straight into the teeth of the German defense. There are changes in the Allied command structure as both Eisenhower and Montgomery leave to take their positions in Operation Overlord. Alexander takes overall command; his plan calls for the Fifth Army to smash through the German defenses into the Liri River valley and then move on Rome. The plan also calls for another landing - this time near Anzio - for a quick drive at Rome. With an Allied force behind them, Alexander believes the Germans will be compelled to fall back. Over the first two weeks of January, both the Eighth and Fifth Armies close on the Gustav Line. On January 15, II Corps captures Monte Trocchio, the last major obstacle between the River Rapido valley and Monte Cassino. The Fifth Army has now achieved contact with the Gustav Line along its entire front. During the next week, the British will make gains along the west coast, but near Monte Cassino the Americans are unable to maintain a foothold on the north bank of the Rapido. Several times small forces succeed in crossing the river, but all are subjected to vicious counterattacks that either drive the Americans back across the river or wipe them out. This offensive, however, achieves one of its objectives - it pulls German forces away from Anzio. The Anzio landings begin on January 22. General Lucas commands U.S. VI Corps, which includes four American and four British divisions along with Commandos and Rangers. The landings are conducted in textbook style - there are only a handful of casualties as 36,000 men come ashore on the first day. The port at Anzio is captured intact, and by the end of the day on January 23 there are 50,000 troops ashore. Still, Lucas is cautious in his advance. The Allies push inland only a few miles, consolidating their gains as they advance, rather than racing for Rome. This lack of aggressiveness enables Kesselring to organize reinforcements, which he orders rushed to Anzio. These reinforcements begin to contest the Allied advance. Elsewhere, the Fifth Army continues to flail at the Gustav Line. The U.S. 34th Division keeps trying to establish a foothold across the Rapido; they finally succeed on January 26. Four days later, the British 5th Division finally cracks the Gustav Line by capturing Monte Natale. On the same day (January 30), the Allies begin attacking the German defensive perimeter around Anzio. They suffer heavy losses and gain very little; only six members of the Ranger battalion leading the attack survive and evade capture. Although the attack is called off on February 2, it does prevent the Germans from launching their own counterattack. The Germans soon begin limited attacks against the British 1st Division at Anzio. These attacks continue on February 7; over the next few days much of the ground changes hands several times, but the British are continually driven back. While the fighting rages at Anzio, at Monte Cassino the U.S. 34th Division fights its way to within a few hundred yards of a monastery. They are unable to capture the monastery itself; by February 12, the New Zealand Corps replaces U.S. II Corps. The attacking Americans are exhausted - the survivors will never forget this fight. When the New Zealanders try to take the monastery, their February 15 attack is preceded by B-17s bombing the German positions. The attack is poorly coordinated, and the Germans repulse the New Zealand Corps with heavy losses. The Germans launch a major offensive against the Anzio Beachhead. The Luftwaffe joins the attack, hitting targets on the ground and in the harbor. The Allied forces on the beachhead have recently been reinforced. There is no decisive breakthrough, but the Allies are pushed back. The Germans make some gains, but Allied artillery and naval fire slow and then stop the attack. It now becomes apparent to Kesselring that he cannot eliminate the Allied beachhead. Both sides settle in to rest and refit; the Anzio front is quiet for 10 days. On February 29, the Germans again try to break the Allied lines at Anzio. Elements of four German divisions hit the U.S. 3rd Division. Again the fighting is fierce and the casualties high, but again the Germans fail to break through. There is a final attack on March 3. When it fails, the Germans go on the defensive. It is relatively quiet throughout Italy for the next two weeks; there is little fighting other than clashes between patrols and reconnaissance teams. On March 15, the Allies renew their efforts near Cassino. Bombers drop 1,400 tons of bombs on the town below the monastery. Artillery units fire 190,000 shells into the town and the surrounding German positions. The New Zealand and 4th Indian Divisions attack the German 1st Paratroop Division; the Allies are repulsed after heavy fighting. Over the next 10 days, the attacks on Monte Cassino produce nominal gains and heavy losses. Alexander orders the attacks halted; soon he pulls the New Zealand Division out of the line. Many units are shifted and commands changed; it will take the Allies more than a month to return to the offensive. When the Allies renew the offensive on May 11, four corps are thrown forward - the U.S. II, the Polish II, the British XIII, and the French Expeditionary Force. The 12 attacking divisions face only 6 German divisions. While there is general progress all along the Gustav Line, it is the French who finally crack the line for good. On May 14, they break into the Ausente Valley and race toward the next German line; they hope to crack this line before the Germans can settle into their defensive positions. By May 16, only the Poles face determined resistance at Cassino; everywhere else the Germans are falling back to their next line of defense. The Poles finally capture the ruins of the monastery at Cassino on May 18. On May 23, the U.S. VI Corps slams into the German defenders at Anzio. No breakthrough is achieved, but the Germans are pushed steadily back. By May 25, U.S II Corps links up with U.S. VI Corps from Anzio; the threat of the Anzio forces on their flank causes the Germans to withdraw farther north. Once the Allied forces begin to advance, General Clark shifts the axis of the attacks toward Rome. This ensures the liberation of Rome in early June but also ensures that Kesselring’s forces escape to their next line of defense, the Viterbo Line north of Rome. On June 5, 1944, the Allies roll into Rome. Traffic is so bad that the Allies are unable to use their full strength in chasing the retreating Germans. The next line of defense for the Germans is the Gothic Line, 150 miles north of Rome. By August 15, the Eighth and Fifth Armies are in contact with this line; however, the drain on resources for Operation Anvil (the amphibious landings in southern France) forces the Allies to wait before any attacks can be launched. In the Sicilian and Italian campaigns, the Allies learn much that they will put to use in Operation Overlord. First and foremost, they begin to refine their landing operations. The value of air attacks and naval bombardment prior to landing is proved in Italy - the toughest landing takes place where Clark has ordered that naval bombardment not be used in order to achieve surprise. Ground support from the air and bombing of the enemy’s approaches to the battlefield continue to prove invaluable; the side that commands air superiority over the battlefield definitely has the advantage. The Allies again encounter an enemy who is giving ground but is doing so grudgingly. The Germans have not been routed. They prove to be masterful at using terrain where a small force can easily hold up a much larger one. This tactic - using the terrain to maximize the effectiveness of small units - will be a major factor in Operation Overlord. The ferocity of the German troops is also a factor in both Italy and France; not only do they contest ground stubbornly, they also withdraw leaving blasted bridges, land mines, and booby traps. Weapons are put to the test of battle in Italy. The Garand rifle sees its first widespread use in the European Theater. The Garand is the only widely used semiautomatic infantry rifle in World War II; despite initial resistance because of its weight, the Garand quickly becomes a beloved weapon. Its semiautomatic operation and high muzzle velocity more than make up for its weight, and it proves to be extremely durable and easy to maintain in the field. In Italy both the Americans and British find their tanks inferior to their German counterparts. A single Sherman stands little chance of defeating a single Mark IV; the Allies instead rely on strength in numbers. And numerical advantages are something the Allies are continuing to achieve. By May 1944, Germany has seen its fortunes fade; they are losing on every front. The promise of 1940 and 1941 is crushed under the reality of 1942, 1943, and the first six months of 1944. The Battle of Britain costs the Luftwaffe air superiority over Western Europe, and keeps Britain in the war. The Battle of the Atlantic costs Germany the power to blockade the British; it enables the Allies to turn Britain into the largest marshaling area in history. The North African Campaigns take Germany’s ally, Italy, out of the war and give the U.S. Army its first combat experience of the war. The campaigns in Sicily and Italy cost the Germans more men and resources but, more importantly, they tie down forces that could be used in Russia or France. Again, the Americans gain more combat experience. The Strategic Bomber Offensive damages German industry and civilian morale and destroys the Luftwaffe when long-range fighters (the P-51 Mustang) make their appearance in early 1944. America’s victories in the Pacific are achieved with limited resources, ensuring that the creation of the Second Front remains the primary goal. Most importantly, the Germans’ Operation Barbarossa has turned out to be a hollow gamble; Hitler can do no better in Russia than Napoleon did. By the time Operation Overlord is taking place, the relentless pressure of the Red Army is never far from the minds in the German high command.