Chapter I - EGYPTIACA

No human society is without dualistic tares; the perfectly harmonious society is an illusion. Egypt is one of the least dualistic societies of Antiquity, but it too had its dualistic elements. The first is that of the Red Land (the desert) and the Black Land (the Nile valley and the Delta), each personified by a god, the desert by Seth, the Red Fiend, and Osiris, the benificent Master of the Black Soil. A second antagonistic element is the difference of the Reed = Upper Egypt (the Nile valley), and the Bee = Lower Egypt (the Delta); originally they were two kingdoms, united by King Menes around 3000 B.C. It is said that even today there is an evident distinction between Upper and Lower Egypt. The Pharaoh was considered to be two kings, who was twice crowned.

Just like the Greeks, the Egyptians thought of themselves as a superior race, the `true men', and accordingly looked down on all other nations. There was a great distance between Pharaoh and the citizens, for the ruler was divine and the ordinary ones were not. With the threatening desert always so near, the Egyptians were afraid of Chaos, the opposite of Order; a dualistic division between Chaos and cosmic Order dominated the Egyptian vision of the world. Finally, there was the opposition of Life and Death; no other nation in the world did so much to conquer Death. (Length of this chapter,with notes, = 57 pp.)

Chapter II - ISRAELITICA

Ancient Israel was the least dualistic society of Antiquity, but even here we discover dualistic elements. There was `apocalyptic dualism', the notion of an ideal, Messianic future, which sharply contrasted with the normal human condition. In the sharp polemics against pagan gods, polytheism, and idolatry we detect a certain fear of other gods. The society of Israel celebrated marriage and was doubtless not a-sexual, while women were not denigrated. Yet no human society condones all forms of sexual activity, and Israel was no exception; extra-marital sexuality was very severely punished, which perhaps betrays a certain fear of sexuality.

There was antagonism between north and south, between Israel and Juda, which more than once resulted in warfare. We should also think of the sharp antagonism of the Jews and the Samaritans. There is, finally, the opposition of the Jews and the Gentiles. Israel was the people of the special Covenant with God, and was, therefore, the chosen nation. The other nations could be saved by turning towards `Sion'. (Length of this chapter, with notes, = 145 pp.)

Chapter III - MESOPOTAMICA AND ANATOLICA

Imperialism originated in the land of the Euphrates and Tigris. Sumer was the first conquering nation; if the notion of empire involves that several nations must united under one sceptre, the Sumer was not yet an empire. But its successor, Akkad, founded the first real empire. It comprised the southern half of Mesopotamia (Iraq). The far greater Babylonian Empire, which comprised all of Mesopotamia, was founded by King Hammurabi (1793-1750); his capital was Babylon. In contrast to the already mentioned nations, who were Semites, the Hittites were Indo-Europeans; they too were empire-builders. Twice they founded an empire, the first in the seventeenth century B.C., and the second in the fourteenth century B.C.; they comprised the eastern half of Asia Minor (Turkey) and Syria.

The Assyrians, who were also Semites, were still greater conquerors; in its largest extent their empire comprised all of Mesopotamia, the regions east of the Tigris, the eastern parts of Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, the largest empire so far. The last Semite empire was the New Babylonian Empire, founded in 612 B.C., which conquered the Assyrian territories minus Egypt. It succumbed to the blows of the Persians in 539 B.C.

The Hittite kings were considered to be of an entirely different order than all other human beings. Their Mesopotamian counterparts were also dualistically opposed to the common mortals. The last paragraph is about the dualistic aspects of the Hittite and Mesopotamian religions. (Length of this chapter, with notes, = 52 pp.)

Chapter IV - PERSICA

The Medians and the Persians were Indo-Europeans. The first eastern empire, that of the Medians, comprised what is now Afghanistan, Iran, and eastern Turkey. The Persians were far greater conquerors; their greatest conquests were made by King Cyrus II after 569 B.C. The Persian Empire comprised all the territories between the Tigris and the Indus, Mesopotamia, all of Turkey, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and the eastern half of Libya, and the eastern half of the Balkan peninsula until the Danube. Attempts to conquer the Greeks failed. It was the greatest empire the western world had ever seen. Around 330 B.C. it was destroyed by the Macedonians of Alexander the Great, whose empire was still greater than that of the Persians.

The second half of this chapter is devoted to the Iranian religion. I repeat my warning that Zoroaster's religion is not the mother of all dualisms. The pre-Zoroastrian religion had already dualistic aspects. We know very little of Zoroaster's life, the dates of which lie between 1000 and 600 B.C. His doctrine is to be found in the Avesta. This doctrine is undoubtedly dualistic. The primary godhead is the `Wise Lord', Ahura Mazda; he finds opposite himself a hostile spirit, an evil one, Angra Mainyu. The consequence is that the universe is basically dualistic. Human beings may choice between the one or the other of the divinities. There is also a marked difference between body and soul. Good and evil will fight each other as long as the world lasts. Zoroaster founded a religious community, which still exists. (The well-known conductor Zubin Mehta is a Zoroastrian.) (Length of this chapter, with notes, = 53 pp.)

This volume contains maps, a Bibliography and a General Index.

Published in 1989 by J.C. Gieben, Publisher.
ISBN 90 5063 032 4